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HMB (hydroxy methyl butyrate)A metabolite of the essential amino acid Leucine

Third, the APP/PS1 transgenic mouse model of Alzheimers disease used in Sun 2021 to test Dihexa in an amyloid-pathology model, with Morris water maze, neuroinflammatory cytokines, and PI3K/AKT pathway activation as primary readouts

Elevated HMGB1 levels have been detected in the blood of patients, where it interacts with receptors such as RAGE and TLR4, forming complexes with IL-1 or LPS to activate proinflammatory signaling pathways (Shimizu et al., 2017)

Furthermore, TGF-1 induces Smad2/3 phosphorylation through activation of Smad1/5/9, thereby inhibiting the TGF signaling pathway [68]