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Cystine is subsequently converted to cysteine and synthesized into glutathione (GSH) by glutamate cysteine ligase (GCL) and glutamylcysteine synthetase (GCS), which defines GPX4 activity[52, 53]

MDA reacts with thiobarbituric acid (TBA) to generate the MDA-TBA adduct which can be quantified colorimetrically by a spectrophotometer (OD 532 nm)

As shown in Figure 3B, the TAU uptake activity increased in a time-dependent manner from 0 to 36 h and reached a plateau after 36 h

DOX interacts with cardiolipin, a phospholipid unique to the inner mitochondrial membrane, affecting the integrity of the membrane and the function of ETC complexes