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While these tools remain the cornerstone of clinical practice, they are inherently limited in their ability to resolve the mechanistic causes underlying idiopathic infertility ( Figure 1 A key limitation across these markers is their static, descriptive nature, which fails to reflect the dynamic processes that influence sperm maturation and function

Both in vivo and in vitro experiments have proved that simvastatin reduce ATP production in a dose-dependent manner and that insulin secretion requires ATP [20]

Although both ROS and RNS are essential for many cellular functions, they require strict regulation by antioxidant systems