S., Brcic, L.,
Vitamin B12 is an essential vitamin that plays an important role in cell reproduction, blood formation, metabolism of fat and carbohydrates, and protein synthesis
Subjective pain intensity was assessed using two different scales: the Visual Analog Scale (VAS) was employed in three studies (15, 17, 19), while the Numerical Rating Scale (NRS) was used in two studies (16, 18)
Key pathophysiologic mechanisms include: Mucosal barrier dysfunction: Impaired epithelial tight junctions allow bacterial translocation, triggering innate immune activation T-helper cell dysregulation: Predominantly Th1 and Th17 pathways drive chronic inflammation via TNF-, IL-12, IL-23 the basis for biologic therapy targets Transmural inflammation: Unlike UC (mucosal only), CD involves all layers: mucosa submucosa muscularis propria serosa Granuloma formation: Non-caseating granulomas are pathognomonic but present in only ~3050% of biopsies Fibrosis and stricture: Chronic inflammation activates myofibroblasts collagen deposition luminal narrowing obstructive symptoms Fistula formation: Transmural ulcers penetrate serosa form sinus tracts connect to adjacent bowel, bladder, vagina, or skin 7
